In a previous post, we described the setup of our carnivore survey in the Greater Etosha Landscape back in September 2024. Now, we’ve had the chance to dive into the data and run some initial analyses, and are excited to share some of our preliminary findings here.
Our survey focussed on three key carnivore species: lions, spotted hyaenas, and black-backed jackals. But it wasn’t just about spotting them—we also recorded animals that responded vocally to our playback calls, giving us a broader picture of their presence in the landscape.
So, what did we find? Black-backed jackals topped the list as the most frequently detected and widespread species, with 252 individuals recorded. They were followed by spotted hyaenas (183) and lions (87). The recorded distribution of these species across the survey area is illustrated in the maps below.
Our preliminary results revealed some interesting patterns in where and how these carnivores were detected. These three species were also more likely to be detected within 5 km of a waterhole. This is not surprising though. During the dry season, waterholes attract an abundance of prey and predators tend to follow.
All three species are typically social and we mostly observed in groups. However, lone individuals weren’t that uncommon either. You might expect hyaenas, known for living in clans that can range from four to 60 individuals, to always be spotted in groups. In this landscape, for example, the average clan size is estimated to be 13. But hyaenas’ social dynamics can be complicated. Clan members frequently break off into smaller sub-groups that vary in size and composition when they’re foraging. This is why we frequently observed solitary hyaenas, despite their deeply social nature.
Lions are famously the only truly social species in the felid family, forming prides of related females and coalitions of related or unrelated males. So, it might be surpsriding that 35% of our lion observations were of lone individuals. But out of the nine times lions were spotted alone, six were adult males. This isn’t unusual, as male coalition members often split up and spend time apart before reuniting. So, while lions are inherently social, their group dynamics can be fluid, especially for males.
Of our jackal observations, 61% were either individuals or pairs. Black-backed jackals typically live in pairs or small family groups, where offspring from the previous year stick around to help raise the next litter. Around waterholes though, it’s not uncommon for multiple jackal families to share the same space. In fact, we recorded 13 jackals at a single station, highlighting how resource-rich areas like waterholes can bring even these smaller carnivores together in larger numbers.
One of the most fascinating aspects of our survey was observing multiple carnivore species at the same stations. For example, hyaenas and lions were recorded together at 14 stations, while jackals were present alongside hyaenas at 39 stations and with lions at 21 stations. At first glance, this might seem surprising. After all, lions pose a serious threat to both hyaenas and jackals, so why would these smaller carnivores risk getting so close to such formidable predators?
The key lies in understanding why these carnivores were attracted to the stations in the first place. During our survey, we played sounds of prey species in distress and hyaenas feeding, both of which act as strong attractants for predators. In the wild, carnivores are skilled opportunists, often eavesdropping on one another to locate potential food sources. If they hear signs of a recent kill or feeding activity, they’ll investigate, hoping to find a carcass or leftovers to scavenge.
While the presence of dominant predators like lions is undoubtedly risky, the potential reward of a free meal can outweigh the danger. It’s not uncommon for lions and hyaenas to steal prey from each other, and both species will sometimes tolerate jackals feeding nearby. For jackals and hyaenas, being in proximity to lions might be dangerous, but the chance to scavenge from a lion’s kill can be worth the risk.
This delicate balance between competition and opportunism is a hallmark of carnivore behaviour. It’s a vivid reminder that in the wild, survival often means taking calculated risks—even if it means facing off against a bigger, more dominant predator.
In ecology, population density refers to the number of animals in a specific area. It’s usually expressed as individuals per square kilometre, but because carnivores typically occur at low densities, we usually report their numbers per 100 km² to make patterns easier to interpret.
While we do have counts of lions, hyaenas, and jackals, the challenge is determining the area over which these detections occurred. Since we used playback calls to attract carnivores, we need to define the area where these calls were heard and animals could respond. We assume that the sounds dispersed evenly in all directions, meaning each station sampled a circular area.
To calculate the area of this circle, we only need its radius, a parameter called the response radius—the distance from the playback source at which animals can hear and respond to the sounds. Previous studies have conducted calibration experiments to estimate the response radius for lions and hyaenas, but there is no existing data on jackal response distances. To simplify, we assumed a 3.5 km response radius for all three species which means that each station samples about 38.5 km². With 92 stations across Etosha, this gives us a total surveyed area of 3,540.6 km².
At this point, we could just divide the number of animals detected by the surveyed area to get a density estimate. Unfortunately, it’s not that easy. One important factor we have to account for is response probability. Even if carnivores hear the playback, they might not respond for several reasons: (1) They might already be feeding and uninterested in investigating; (2) they could have young offspring and avoid risking exposure to potential predators; (3) some individuals are naturally more cautious or less curious than others. If we don’t account for these non-responses, we risk underestimating the actual population density.
Ideally, we would estimate the response probability through calibration studies, where we know how many animals are present and can measure how many respond to the playbacks. However, we don’t have these data available. To err on the side of caution, we applied a conservative response probability of 80% for all three species. This means that for every eight carnivores detected, we assume there were two additional individuals present who did not respond to the playback. By factoring in this response probability, we can adjust our counts to better reflect the true densities of lions, hyaenas, and jackals in the Greater Etosha Landscape.
After crunching the numbers and adjusting for response probabilities, we are excited to share the preliminary density estimates for the Greater Etosha Landscape (the table above gives the number of carnivores seen only in the national park):
Lions: 2.6 individuals per 100 km²
Spotted hyaenas: 4.8 individuals per 100 km²
Black-backed jackals: 7.4 individuals per 100 km²
While these figures give us valuable insight into the current status of these species in across the Greater Etosha Landscape, it’s important to note that these are still preliminary results. We are continuing to refine our analyses and will soon be comparing these findings to data from previous surveys. This will help us identify trends (if any) in the populations of lions and spotted hyaenas over time.So, stay tuned as we continue to dive deeper into our data and explore what they reveal about the dynamics of Etosha’s carnivore communities.
